"itertools" — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
****************************************************************

======================================================================

This module implements a number of *iterator* building blocks inspired
by constructs from APL, Haskell, and SML.  Each has been recast in a
form suitable for Python.

The module standardizes a core set of fast, memory efficient tools
that are useful by themselves or in combination.  Together, they form
an “iterator algebra” making it possible to construct specialized
tools succinctly and efficiently in pure Python.

For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: "tabulate(f)" which
produces a sequence "f(0), f(1), ...".  The same effect can be
achieved in Python by combining "map()" and "count()" to form "map(f,
count())".

These tools and their built-in counterparts also work well with the
high-speed functions in the "operator" module.  For example, the
multiplication operator can be mapped across two vectors to form an
efficient dot-product: "sum(starmap(operator.mul, zip(vec1, vec2,
strict=True)))".

**Infinite iterators:**

+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Iterator           | Arguments         | Results                                           | Example                                   |
|====================|===================|===================================================|===========================================|
| "count()"          | [start[, step]]   | start, start+step, start+2*step, …                | "count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ..."          |
+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| "cycle()"          | p                 | p0, p1, … plast, p0, p1, …                        | "cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ..."     |
+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| "repeat()"         | elem [,n]         | elem, elem, elem, … endlessly or up to n times    | "repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10"                |
+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+

**Iterators terminating on the shortest input sequence:**

+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Iterator                     | Arguments                    | Results                                           | Example                                                       |
|==============================|==============================|===================================================|===============================================================|
| "accumulate()"               | p [,func]                    | p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, …                            | "accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15"                       |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "batched()"                  | p, n                         | (p0, p1, …, p_n-1), …                             | "batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G"                         |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "chain()"                    | p, q, …                      | p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                        | "chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F"                           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "chain.from_iterable()"      | iterable                     | p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                        | "chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F"           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "compress()"                 | data, selectors              | (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), …                 | "compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F"                 |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "dropwhile()"                | predicate, seq               | seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails   | "dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8"               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "filterfalse()"              | predicate, seq               | elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails       | "filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8"               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "groupby()"                  | iterable[, key]              | sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v)          |                                                               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "islice()"                   | seq, [start,] stop [, step]  | elements from seq[start:stop:step]                | "islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G"                      |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "pairwise()"                 | iterable                     | (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                        | "pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG"                     |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "starmap()"                  | func, seq                    | func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), …                   | "starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000"            |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "takewhile()"                | predicate, seq               | seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails             | "takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4"                 |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "tee()"                      | it, n                        | it1, it2, … itn  splits one iterator into n       |                                                               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "zip_longest()"              | p, q, …                      | (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), …                     | "zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-"      |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+

**Combinatoric iterators:**

+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Iterator                                       | Arguments            | Results                                                       |
|================================================|======================|===============================================================|
| "product()"                                    | p, q, … [repeat=1]   | cartesian product, equivalent to a nested for-loop            |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "permutations()"                               | p[, r]               | r-length tuples, all possible orderings, no repeated elements |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations()"                               | p, r                 | r-length tuples, in sorted order, no repeated elements        |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations_with_replacement()"              | p, r                 | r-length tuples, in sorted order, with repeated elements      |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+

+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Examples                                       | Results                                                       |
|================================================|===============================================================|
| "product('ABCD', repeat=2)"                    | "AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD"             |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "permutations('ABCD', 2)"                      | "AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC"                         |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations('ABCD', 2)"                      | "AB AC AD BC BD CD"                                           |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)"     | "AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD"                               |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+


Itertool Functions
==================

The following module functions all construct and return iterators.
Some provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be
accessed by functions or loops that truncate the stream.

itertools.accumulate(iterable[, function, *, initial=None])

   Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated
   results from other binary functions.

   The *function* defaults to addition.  The *function* should accept
   two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the
   *iterable*.

   If an *initial* value is provided, the accumulation will start with
   that value and the output will have one more element than the input
   iterable.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
          'Return running totals'
          # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
          # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
          # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

          iterator = iter(iterable)
          total = initial
          if initial is None:
              try:
                  total = next(iterator)
              except StopIteration:
                  return

          yield total
          for element in iterator:
              total = function(total, element)
              yield total

   The *function* argument can be set to "min()" for a running
   minimum, "max()" for a running maximum, or "operator.mul()" for a
   running product.  Amortization tables can be built by accumulating
   interest and applying payments:

      >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
      >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
      [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
      >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
      [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

      # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
      >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
      >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
      [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

   See "functools.reduce()" for a similar function that returns only
   the final accumulated value.

   Added in version 3.2.

   Changed in version 3.3: Added the optional *function* parameter.

   Changed in version 3.8: Added the optional *initial* parameter.

itertools.batched(iterable, n)

   Batch data from the *iterable* into tuples of length *n*. The last
   batch may be shorter than *n*.

   Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up
   to size *n*.  The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a
   batch. The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when
   the input iterable is exhausted:

      >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
      >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
      >>> unflattened
      [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def batched(iterable, n):
          # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
          if n < 1:
              raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
          iterator = iter(iterable)
          while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
              yield batch

   Added in version 3.12.

itertools.chain(*iterables)

   Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable
   until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until
   all of the iterables are exhausted.  Used for treating consecutive
   sequences as a single sequence. Roughly equivalent to:

      def chain(*iterables):
          # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
          for iterable in iterables:
              yield from iterable

classmethod chain.from_iterable(iterable)

   Alternate constructor for "chain()".  Gets chained inputs from a
   single iterable argument that is evaluated lazily.  Roughly
   equivalent to:

      def from_iterable(iterables):
          # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
          for iterable in iterables:
              yield from iterable

itertools.combinations(iterable, r)

   Return *r* length subsequences of elements from the input
   *iterable*.

   The output is a subsequence of "product()" keeping only entries
   that are subsequences of the *iterable*.  The length of the output
   is given by "math.comb()" which computes "n! / r! / (n - r)!" when
   "0 ≤ r ≤ n" or zero when "r > n".

   The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
   to the order of the input *iterable*. If the input *iterable* is
   sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
   their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
   repeated values within each combination.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def combinations(iterable, r):
          # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
          # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          if r > n:
              return
          indices = list(range(r))

          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
          while True:
              for i in reversed(range(r)):
                  if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                      break
              else:
                  return
              indices[i] += 1
              for j in range(i+1, r):
                  indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)

   Return *r* length subsequences of elements from the input
   *iterable* allowing individual elements to be repeated more than
   once.

   The output is a subsequence of "product()" that keeps only entries
   that are subsequences (with possible repeated elements) of the
   *iterable*.  The number of subsequence returned is "(n + r - 1)! /
   r! / (n - 1)!" when "n > 0".

   The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
   to the order of the input *iterable*. if the input *iterable* is
   sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
   their value.  If the input elements are unique, the generated
   combinations will also be unique.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
          # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          if not n and r:
              return
          indices = [0] * r

          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
          while True:
              for i in reversed(range(r)):
                  if indices[i] != n - 1:
                      break
              else:
                  return
              indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

   Added in version 3.1.

itertools.compress(data, selectors)

   Make an iterator that returns elements from *data* where the
   corresponding element in *selectors* is true.  Stops when either
   the *data* or *selectors* iterables have been exhausted.  Roughly
   equivalent to:

      def compress(data, selectors):
          # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
          return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

   Added in version 3.1.

itertools.count(start=0, step=1)

   Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with
   *start*. Can be used with "map()" to generate consecutive data
   points or with "zip()" to add sequence numbers.  Roughly equivalent
   to:

      def count(start=0, step=1):
          # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
          # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
          n = start
          while True:
              yield n
              n += step

   When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can
   sometimes be achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as:
   "(start + step * i for i in count())".

   Changed in version 3.1: Added *step* argument and allowed non-
   integer arguments.

itertools.cycle(iterable)

   Make an iterator returning elements from the *iterable* and saving
   a copy of each.  When the iterable is exhausted, return elements
   from the saved copy.  Repeats indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to:

      def cycle(iterable):
          # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...
          saved = []
          for element in iterable:
              yield element
              saved.append(element)
          while saved:
              for element in saved:
                  yield element

   This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
   on the length of the iterable).

itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iterable)

   Make an iterator that drops elements from the *iterable* while the
   *predicate* is true and afterwards returns every element.  Roughly
   equivalent to:

      def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
          # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

          iterator = iter(iterable)
          for x in iterator:
              if not predicate(x):
                  yield x
                  break

          for x in iterator:
              yield x

   Note this does not produce *any* output until the predicate first
   becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.

itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iterable)

   Make an iterator that filters elements from the *iterable*
   returning only those for which the *predicate* returns a false
   value.  If *predicate* is "None", returns the items that are false.
   Roughly equivalent to:

      def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
          # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8
          if predicate is None:
              predicate = bool
          for x in iterable:
              if not predicate(x):
                  yield x

itertools.groupby(iterable, key=None)

   Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the
   *iterable*. The *key* is a function computing a key value for each
   element.  If not specified or is "None", *key* defaults to an
   identity function and returns the element unchanged.  Generally,
   the iterable needs to already be sorted on the same key function.

   The operation of "groupby()" is similar to the "uniq" filter in
   Unix.  It generates a break or new group every time the value of
   the key function changes (which is why it is usually necessary to
   have sorted the data using the same key function).  That behavior
   differs from SQL’s GROUP BY which aggregates common elements
   regardless of their input order.

   The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying
   iterable with "groupby()".  Because the source is shared, when the
   "groupby()" object is advanced, the previous group is no longer
   visible.  So, if that data is needed later, it should be stored as
   a list:

      groups = []
      uniquekeys = []
      data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
      for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
          groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
          uniquekeys.append(k)

   "groupby()" is roughly equivalent to:

      def groupby(iterable, key=None):
          # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
          # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

          keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
          iterator = iter(iterable)
          exhausted = False

          def _grouper(target_key):
              nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
              yield curr_value
              for curr_value in iterator:
                  curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
                  if curr_key != target_key:
                      return
                  yield curr_value
              exhausted = True

          try:
              curr_value = next(iterator)
          except StopIteration:
              return
          curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

          while not exhausted:
              target_key = curr_key
              curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
              yield curr_key, curr_group
              if curr_key == target_key:
                  for _ in curr_group:
                      pass

itertools.islice(iterable, stop)
itertools.islice(iterable, start, stop[, step])

   Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
   Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values
   for *start*, *stop*, or *step*.

   If *start* is zero or "None", iteration starts at zero.  Otherwise,
   elements from the iterable are skipped until *start* is reached.

   If *stop* is "None", iteration continues until the iterator is
   exhausted, if at all.  Otherwise, it stops at the specified
   position.

   If *step* is "None", the step defaults to one.  Elements are
   returned consecutively unless *step* is set higher than one which
   results in items being skipped.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def islice(iterable, *args):
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

          s = slice(*args)
          start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
          stop = s.stop
          step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
          if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
              raise ValueError

          indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
          next_i = start
          for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
              if i == next_i:
                  yield element
                  next_i += step

itertools.pairwise(iterable)

   Return successive overlapping pairs taken from the input
   *iterable*.

   The number of 2-tuples in the output iterator will be one fewer
   than the number of inputs.  It will be empty if the input iterable
   has fewer than two values.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def pairwise(iterable):
          # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG
          iterator = iter(iterable)
          a = next(iterator, None)
          for b in iterator:
              yield a, b
              a = b

   Added in version 3.10.

itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None)

   Return successive *r* length permutations of elements from the
   *iterable*.

   If *r* is not specified or is "None", then *r* defaults to the
   length of the *iterable* and all possible full-length permutations
   are generated.

   The output is a subsequence of "product()" where entries with
   repeated elements have been filtered out.  The length of the output
   is given by "math.perm()" which computes "n! / (n - r)!" when "0 ≤
   r ≤ n" or zero when "r > n".

   The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
   to the order of the input *iterable*.  If the input *iterable* is
   sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
   their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
   repeated values within a permutation.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def permutations(iterable, r=None):
          # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
          # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          r = n if r is None else r
          if r > n:
              return

          indices = list(range(n))
          cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

          while n:
              for i in reversed(range(r)):
                  cycles[i] -= 1
                  if cycles[i] == 0:
                      indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                      cycles[i] = n - i
                  else:
                      j = cycles[i]
                      indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                      yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                      break
              else:
                  return

itertools.product(*iterables, repeat=1)

   Cartesian product of input iterables.

   Roughly equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression.
   For example, "product(A, B)" returns the same as "((x,y) for x in A
   for y in B)".

   The nested loops cycle like an odometer with the rightmost element
   advancing on every iteration.  This pattern creates a lexicographic
   ordering so that if the input’s iterables are sorted, the product
   tuples are emitted in sorted order.

   To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the
   number of repetitions with the optional *repeat* keyword argument.
   For example, "product(A, repeat=4)" means the same as "product(A,
   A, A, A)".

   This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except
   that the actual implementation does not build up intermediate
   results in memory:

      def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
          # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
          # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

          pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

          result = [[]]
          for pool in pools:
              result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

          for prod in result:
              yield tuple(prod)

   Before "product()" runs, it completely consumes the input
   iterables, keeping pools of values in memory to generate the
   products.  Accordingly, it is only useful with finite inputs.

itertools.repeat(object[, times])

   Make an iterator that returns *object* over and over again. Runs
   indefinitely unless the *times* argument is specified.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def repeat(object, times=None):
          # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
          if times is None:
              while True:
                  yield object
          else:
              for i in range(times):
                  yield object

   A common use for *repeat* is to supply a stream of constant values
   to *map* or *zip*:

      >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
      [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

itertools.starmap(function, iterable)

   Make an iterator that computes the *function* using arguments
   obtained from the *iterable*.  Used instead of "map()" when
   argument parameters have already been “pre-zipped” into tuples.

   The difference between "map()" and "starmap()" parallels the
   distinction between "function(a,b)" and "function(*c)". Roughly
   equivalent to:

      def starmap(function, iterable):
          # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
          for args in iterable:
              yield function(*args)

itertools.takewhile(predicate, iterable)

   Make an iterator that returns elements from the *iterable* as long
   as the *predicate* is true.  Roughly equivalent to:

      def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
          # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
          for x in iterable:
              if not predicate(x):
                  break
              yield x

   Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
   consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
   This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume
   the input iterator after *takewhile* has been run to exhaustion.
   To work around this problem, consider using more-itertools
   before_and_after() instead.

itertools.tee(iterable, n=2)

   Return *n* independent iterators from a single iterable.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def tee(iterable, n=2):
          if n < 0:
              raise ValueError
          if n == 0:
              return ()
          iterator = _tee(iterable)
          result = [iterator]
          for _ in range(n - 1):
              result.append(_tee(iterator))
          return tuple(result)

      class _tee:

          def __init__(self, iterable):
              it = iter(iterable)
              if isinstance(it, _tee):
                  self.iterator = it.iterator
                  self.link = it.link
              else:
                  self.iterator = it
                  self.link = [None, None]

          def __iter__(self):
              return self

          def __next__(self):
              link = self.link
              if link[1] is None:
                  link[0] = next(self.iterator)
                  link[1] = [None, None]
              value, self.link = link
              return value

   "tee" iterators are not threadsafe. A "RuntimeError" may be raised
   when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same "tee()"
   call, even if the original *iterable* is threadsafe.

   This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
   on how much temporary data needs to be stored). In general, if one
   iterator uses most or all of the data before another iterator
   starts, it is faster to use "list()" instead of "tee()".

itertools.zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None)

   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
   *iterables*.

   If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in
   with *fillvalue*.  If not specified, *fillvalue* defaults to
   "None".

   Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.

   Roughly equivalent to:

      def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
          # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

          iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
          num_active = len(iterators)
          if not num_active:
              return

          while True:
              values = []
              for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
                  try:
                      value = next(iterator)
                  except StopIteration:
                      num_active -= 1
                      if not num_active:
                          return
                      iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                      value = fillvalue
                  values.append(value)
              yield tuple(values)

   If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the
   "zip_longest()" function should be wrapped with something that
   limits the number of calls (for example "islice()" or
   "takewhile()").


Itertools Recipes
=================

This section shows recipes for creating an extended toolset using the
existing itertools as building blocks.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational.  The
recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for
example, that "chain.from_iterable" is related to the concept of
flattening.  The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can
be combined — for example, how "starmap()" and "repeat()" can work
together.  The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the
"operator" and "collections" modules as well as with the built-in
itertools such as "map()", "filter()", "reversed()", and
"enumerate()".

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator.  The
"accumulate()", "compress()", and "pairwise()" itertools started out
as recipes.  Currently, the "sliding_window()", "iter_index()", and
"sieve()" recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their
worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be
installed from the more-itertools project found on the Python Package
Index:

   python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying
toolset. Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements
one at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all
at once. Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a
functional style.  High speed is retained by preferring “vectorized”
building blocks over the use of for-loops and *generators* which incur
interpreter overhead.

   import collections
   import contextlib
   import functools
   import math
   import operator
   import random

   def take(n, iterable):
       "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
       return list(islice(iterable, n))

   def prepend(value, iterable):
       "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
       # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
       return chain([value], iterable)

   def tabulate(function, start=0):
       "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
       return map(function, count(start))

   def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args):
       "Repeat calls to func with specified arguments."
       if times is None:
           return starmap(func, repeat(args))
       return starmap(func, repeat(args, times))

   def flatten(list_of_lists):
       "Flatten one level of nesting."
       return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

   def ncycles(iterable, n):
       "Returns the sequence elements n times."
       return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

   def loops(n):
       "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
       # for _ in loops(100): ...
       return repeat(None, n)

   def tail(n, iterable):
       "Return an iterator over the last n items."
       # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
       return iter(collections.deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

   def consume(iterator, n=None):
       "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
       # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
       if n is None:
           collections.deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
       else:
           next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

   def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
       "Returns the nth item or a default value."
       return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

   def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
       "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
       return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

   def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
       "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
       # first_true([a,b,c], x) → a or b or c or x
       # first_true([a,b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
       return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

   def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
       "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
       # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
       return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

   def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
       "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
       # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
       # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
       if key is None:
           return map(operator.itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
       return map(next, map(operator.itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

   def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
       "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
       # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
       # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
       seen = set()
       if key is None:
           for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
               seen.add(element)
               yield element
       else:
           for element in iterable:
               k = key(element)
               if k not in seen:
                   seen.add(k)
                   yield element

   def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
      "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
      # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
      return unique_justseen(sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse), key=key)

   def sliding_window(iterable, n):
       "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
       # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
       iterator = iter(iterable)
       window = collections.deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
       for x in iterator:
           window.append(x)
           yield tuple(window)

   def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
       "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x') → ABC DEF Gxx
       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
       iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
       match incomplete:
           case 'fill':
               return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
           case 'strict':
               return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
           case 'ignore':
               return zip(*iterators)
           case _:
               raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

   def roundrobin(*iterables):
       "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
       # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
       # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
       iterators = map(iter, iterables)
       for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
           iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
           yield from map(next, iterators)

   def partition(predicate, iterable):
       """Partition entries into false entries and true entries.

       If *predicate* is slow, consider wrapping it with functools.lru_cache().
       """
       # partition(is_odd, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8   and  1 3 5 7 9
       t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
       return filterfalse(predicate, t1), filter(predicate, t2)

   def subslices(seq):
       "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
       # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
       slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
       return map(operator.getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

   def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
       "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
       # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
       seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
       if seq_index is None:
           iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
           for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
               if element is value or element == value:
                   yield i
       else:
           stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
           i = start
           with contextlib.suppress(ValueError):
               while True:
                   yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                   i += 1

   def iter_except(func, exception, first=None):
       "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
       # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
       with contextlib.suppress(exception):
           if first is not None:
               yield first()
           while True:
               yield func()

The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:

   def powerset(iterable):
       "powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)"
       s = list(iterable)
       return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

   def sum_of_squares(iterable):
       "Add up the squares of the input values."
       # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
       return math.sumprod(*tee(iterable))

   def reshape(matrix, cols):
       "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
       # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
       return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), cols)

   def transpose(matrix):
       "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
       # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
       return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

   def matmul(m1, m2):
       "Multiply two matrices."
       # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
       n = len(m2[0])
       return batched(starmap(math.sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

   def convolve(signal, kernel):
       """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
       Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

       Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
       evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
       infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

       Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
       Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
       """
       # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
       # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
       # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
       # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
       kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
       n = len(kernel)
       padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
       windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
       return map(math.sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

   def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
       """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

          (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
       """
       # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
       factors = zip(repeat(1), map(operator.neg, roots))
       return list(functools.reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

   def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
       """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

       Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
       """
       # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
       # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
       n = len(coefficients)
       if not n:
           return type(x)(0)
       powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
       return math.sumprod(coefficients, powers)

   def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
       """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

          f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
          f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
       """
       # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
       n = len(coefficients)
       powers = reversed(range(1, n))
       return list(map(operator.mul, coefficients, powers))

   def sieve(n):
       "Primes less than n."
       # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
       if n > 2:
           yield 2
       data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
       for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=math.isqrt(n) + 1):
           data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
       yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

   def is_prime(n):
       "Return True if n is prime."
       # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
       return n > 1 and all(n % p for p in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1))

   def factor(n):
       "Prime factors of n."
       # factor(99) → 3 3 11
       # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
       # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
       for prime in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1):
           while not n % prime:
               yield prime
               n //= prime
               if n == 1:
                   return
       if n > 1:
           yield n

   def totient(n):
       "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
       # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
       # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
       for prime in set(factor(n)):
           n -= n // prime
       return n

   def multinomial(*counts):
       "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
       # Counter('abracadabra').values() -> 5 2 1 1 2
       # multinomial(5, 2, 1, 1, 2) → 83160
       return math.prod(map(math.comb, accumulate(counts), counts))
