dlib C++ Library - point_transforms.h

    // Copyright (C) 2003  Davis E. King (davis@dlib.net)
    // License: Boost Software License   See LICENSE.txt for the full license.
    #ifndef DLIB_POINT_TrANSFORMS_H_
    #define DLIB_POINT_TrANSFORMS_H_

    #include "point_transforms_abstract.h"
    #include "../algs.h"
    #include "vector.h"
    #include "../matrix.h"
    #include "../matrix/matrix_la.h"
    #include "../optimization/optimization.h"
    #include "rectangle.h"
    #include "drectangle.h"
    #include <vector>
    #include <cmath>

    namespace dlib
    {

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class point_rotator
        {
        public:
            point_rotator (
            )
            {
                sin_angle = 0;
                cos_angle = 1;
            }

            point_rotator (
                const double& angle
            )
            {
                sin_angle = std::sin(angle);
                cos_angle = std::cos(angle);
            }

            template <typename T>
            const dlib::vector<T,2> operator() (
                const dlib::vector<T,2>& p
            ) const
            {
                double x = cos_angle*p.x() - sin_angle*p.y();
                double y = sin_angle*p.x() + cos_angle*p.y();

                return dlib::vector<double,2>(x,y);
            }

            const matrix<double,2,2> get_m(
            ) const
            {
                matrix<double,2,2> temp;
                temp = cos_angle, -sin_angle,
                       sin_angle, cos_angle;
                return temp;
            }

            inline friend void serialize (const point_rotator& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.sin_angle, out);
                serialize(item.cos_angle, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (point_rotator& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.sin_angle, in);
                deserialize(item.cos_angle, in);
            }

        private:
            double sin_angle;
            double cos_angle;
        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class point_transform
        {
        public:

            point_transform (
            )
            {
                sin_angle = 0;
                cos_angle = 1;
                translate.x() = 0;
                translate.y() = 0;
            }

            point_transform (
                const double& angle,
                const dlib::vector<double,2>& translate_
            )
            {
                sin_angle = std::sin(angle);
                cos_angle = std::cos(angle);
                translate = translate_;
            }

            template <typename T>
            const dlib::vector<T,2> operator() (
                const dlib::vector<T,2>& p
            ) const
            {
                double x = cos_angle*p.x() - sin_angle*p.y();
                double y = sin_angle*p.x() + cos_angle*p.y();

                return dlib::vector<double,2>(x,y) + translate;
            }

            const matrix<double,2,2> get_m(
            ) const
            {
                matrix<double,2,2> temp;
                temp = cos_angle, -sin_angle,
                       sin_angle, cos_angle;
                return temp;
            }

            const dlib::vector<double,2> get_b(
            ) const { return translate; }

            inline friend void serialize (const point_transform& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.sin_angle, out);
                serialize(item.cos_angle, out);
                serialize(item.translate, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (point_transform& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.sin_angle, in);
                deserialize(item.cos_angle, in);
                deserialize(item.translate, in);
            }

        private:
            double sin_angle;
            double cos_angle;
            dlib::vector<double,2> translate;
        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class point_transform_affine
        {
        public:

            point_transform_affine (
            )
            {
                m = identity_matrix<double>(2);
                b.x() = 0;
                b.y() = 0;
            }

            point_transform_affine (
                const matrix<double,2,2>& m_,
                const dlib::vector<double,2>& b_
            ) :m(m_), b(b_)
            {
            }

            const dlib::vector<double,2> operator() (
                const dlib::vector<double,2>& p
            ) const
            {
                return m*p + b;
            }

            const matrix<double,2,2>& get_m(
            ) const { return m; }

            const dlib::vector<double,2>& get_b(
            ) const { return b; }

            inline friend void serialize (const point_transform_affine& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.m, out);
                serialize(item.b, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (point_transform_affine& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.m, in);
                deserialize(item.b, in);
            }

        private:
            matrix<double,2,2> m;
            dlib::vector<double,2> b;
        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class rectangle_transform
        {
        public:

            rectangle_transform (
            )
            {
            }

            rectangle_transform (
                const point_transform_affine& tform_
            ) :tform(tform_)
            {
            }

            drectangle operator() (
                const drectangle& r
            ) const
            {
                dpoint tl = r.tl_corner();
                dpoint tr = r.tr_corner();
                dpoint bl = r.bl_corner();
                dpoint br = r.br_corner();
                // The new rectangle would ideally have this area if we could actually rotate
                // the box.  Note the 1+ is because that's how the rectangles calculate their
                // width and height.
                double new_area = (1+length(tform(tl)-tform(tr)))*(1+length(tform(tl)-tform(bl)));

                // But if we rotate the corners of the rectangle and then find the rectangle
                // that contains them we get this, which might have a much larger area than we
                // want.
                drectangle temp;
                temp += tform(tl);
                temp += tform(tr);
                temp += tform(bl);
                temp += tform(br);
                // so we adjust the area to match the target area and have the same center as
                // the above box.
                double scale = std::sqrt(new_area/temp.area());

                return centered_drect(dcenter(temp), temp.width()*scale, temp.height()*scale);
            }

            rectangle operator() (
                const rectangle& r
            ) const
            {
                const auto temp = (*this)(drectangle(r));
                return centered_rect(center(temp), std::round(temp.width()), std::round(temp.height()));
            }

            const point_transform_affine& get_tform(
            ) const { return tform; }

            inline friend void serialize (const rectangle_transform& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.tform, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (rectangle_transform& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.tform, in);
            }

        private:
            point_transform_affine tform;
        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine operator* (
            const point_transform_affine& lhs,
            const point_transform_affine& rhs
        )
        {
            return point_transform_affine(lhs.get_m()*rhs.get_m(), lhs.get_m()*rhs.get_b()+lhs.get_b());
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine inv (
            const point_transform_affine& trans
        )
        {
            matrix<double,2,2> im = inv(trans.get_m());
            return point_transform_affine(im, -im*trans.get_b());
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        template <typename T>
        point_transform_affine find_affine_transform (
            const std::vector<dlib::vector<T,2> >& from_points,
            const std::vector<dlib::vector<T,2> >& to_points
        )
        {
            // make sure requires clause is not broken
            DLIB_ASSERT(from_points.size() == to_points.size() &&
                        from_points.size() >= 3,
                "\t point_transform_affine find_affine_transform(from_points, to_points)"
                << "\n\t Invalid inputs were given to this function."
                << "\n\t from_points.size(): " << from_points.size()
                << "\n\t to_points.size():   " << to_points.size()
                );

            matrix<double,3,0> P(3, from_points.size());
            matrix<double,2,0> Q(2, from_points.size());

            for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
            {
                P(0,i) = from_points[i].x();
                P(1,i) = from_points[i].y();
                P(2,i) = 1;

                Q(0,i) = to_points[i].x();
                Q(1,i) = to_points[i].y();
            }

            const matrix<double,2,3> m = Q*pinv(P);
            return point_transform_affine(subm(m,0,0,2,2), colm(m,2));
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        template <typename T>
        point_transform_affine find_similarity_transform (
            const std::vector<dlib::vector<T,2> >& from_points,
            const std::vector<dlib::vector<T,2> >& to_points
        )
        {
            // make sure requires clause is not broken
            DLIB_ASSERT(from_points.size() == to_points.size() &&
                        from_points.size() >= 2,
                "\t point_transform_affine find_similarity_transform(from_points, to_points)"
                << "\n\t Invalid inputs were given to this function."
                << "\n\t from_points.size(): " << from_points.size()
                << "\n\t to_points.size():   " << to_points.size()
                );

            // We use the formulas from the paper: Least-squares estimation of transformation
            // parameters between two point patterns by Umeyama.  They are equations 34 through
            // 43.

            dlib::vector<double,2> mean_from, mean_to;
            double sigma_from = 0, sigma_to = 0;
            matrix<double,2,2> cov;
            cov = 0;

            for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
            {
                mean_from += from_points[i];
                mean_to += to_points[i];
            }
            mean_from /= from_points.size();
            mean_to   /= from_points.size();

            for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
            {
                sigma_from += length_squared(from_points[i] - mean_from);
                sigma_to += length_squared(to_points[i] - mean_to);
                cov += (to_points[i] - mean_to)*trans(from_points[i] - mean_from);
            }

            sigma_from /= from_points.size();
            sigma_to   /= from_points.size();
            cov        /= from_points.size();

            matrix<double,2,2> u, v, s, d;
            svd(cov, u,d,v);
            s = identity_matrix(cov);
            if (det(cov) < 0 || (det(cov) == 0 && det(u)*det(v)<0))
            {
                if (d(1,1) < d(0,0))
                    s(1,1) = -1;
                else
                    s(0,0) = -1;
            }

            matrix<double,2,2> r = u*s*trans(v);
            double c = 1;
            if (sigma_from != 0)
                c = 1.0/sigma_from * trace(d*s);
            vector<double,2> t = mean_to - c*r*mean_from;

            return point_transform_affine(c*r, t);
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class point_transform_projective
        {
        public:

            point_transform_projective (
            )
            {
                m = identity_matrix<double>(3);
            }

            point_transform_projective (
                const matrix<double,3,3>& m_
            ) :m(m_)
            {
            }

            point_transform_projective (
                const point_transform_affine& tran
            )
            {
                set_subm(m, 0,0, 2,2) = tran.get_m();
                set_subm(m, 0,2, 2,1) = tran.get_b();
                m(2,0) = 0;
                m(2,1) = 0;
                m(2,2) = 1;
            }

            const dlib::vector<double,2> operator() (
                const dlib::vector<double,2>& p
            ) const
            {
                dlib::vector<double,3> temp(p);
                temp.z() = 1;
                temp = m*temp;
                if (temp.z() != 0)
                    temp = temp/temp.z();
                return temp;
            }

            const matrix<double,3,3>& get_m(
            ) const { return m; }

            inline friend void serialize (const point_transform_projective& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.m, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (point_transform_projective& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.m, in);
            }

        private:
            matrix<double,3,3> m;
        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_projective operator* (
            const point_transform_projective& lhs,
            const point_transform_projective& rhs
        )
        {
            return point_transform_projective(lhs.get_m()*rhs.get_m());
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_projective inv (
            const point_transform_projective& trans
        )
        {
            return point_transform_projective(inv(trans.get_m()));
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        namespace impl_proj
        {

            inline point_transform_projective find_projective_transform_basic (
                const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& from_points,
                const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& to_points
            )
            /*!
                ensures
                    - Uses the system of equations approach to finding a projective transform.
                      This is "Method 3" from Estimating Projective Transformation Matrix by
                      Zhengyou Zhang.
                    - It should be emphasized that the find_projective_transform_basic()
                      routine, which uses the most popular method for finding projective
                      transformations, doesn't really work well when the minimum error solution
                      doesn't have zero error.  In this case, it can deviate by a large amount
                      from the proper minimum mean squared error transformation.  Therefore,
                      our overall strategy will be to use the solution from
                      find_projective_transform_basic() as a starting point for a BFGS based
                      non-linear optimizer which will optimize the correct mean squared error
                      criterion.

                      A great essay on this subject is Homography Estimation by Elan Dubrofsky.
            !*/
            {
                // make sure requires clause is not broken
                DLIB_ASSERT(from_points.size() == to_points.size() &&
                    from_points.size() >= 4,
                    "\t point_transform_projective find_projective_transform_basic(from_points, to_points)"
                    << "\n\t Invalid inputs were given to this function."
                    << "\n\t from_points.size(): " << from_points.size()
                    << "\n\t to_points.size():   " << to_points.size()
                );

                matrix<double,9,9> accum, u, v;
                matrix<double,9,1> w;
                matrix<double,2,9> B;
                accum = 0;
                B = 0;
                for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
                {
                    dlib::vector<double,3> f = from_points[i];
                    f.z() = 1;
                    dlib::vector<double,3> t = to_points[i];
                    t.z() = 1;

                    set_subm(B,0,0,1,3) = t.y()*trans(f);
                    set_subm(B,1,0,1,3) =       trans(f);

                    set_subm(B,0,3,1,3) = -t.x()*trans(f);
                    set_subm(B,1,6,1,3) = -t.x()*trans(f);

                    accum += trans(B)*B;
                }

                svd2(true, false, accum, u, w, v);
                long j = index_of_min(w);

                return point_transform_projective(reshape(colm(u,j),3,3));
            }

        // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

            struct obj
            {
                /*!
                    WHAT THIS OBJECT REPRESENTS
                        This is the objective function we really want to minimize when looking
                        for a transformation matrix.  That is, we would like the transformed
                        points to be as close as possible to their "to" points.  Here,
                        closeness is measured using Euclidean distance.

                !*/
                obj(
                    const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& from_points_,
                    const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& to_points_
                ) :
                    from_points(from_points_) ,
                    to_points(to_points_)
                {}
                const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& from_points;
                const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& to_points;

                double operator() (
                    const matrix<double,9,1>& p
                ) const
                {
                    point_transform_projective tran(reshape(p,3,3));

                    double sum = 0;
                    for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
                    {
                        sum += length_squared(tran(from_points[i]) - to_points[i]);
                    }
                    return sum;
                }
            };

            struct obj_der
            {
                /*!
                    WHAT THIS OBJECT REPRESENTS
                        This is the derivative of obj.
                !*/

                obj_der(
                    const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& from_points_,
                    const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& to_points_
                ) :
                    from_points(from_points_) ,
                    to_points(to_points_)
                {}
                const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& from_points;
                const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& to_points;

                matrix<double,9,1> operator() (
                    const matrix<double,9,1>& p
                ) const
                {
                    const matrix<double,3,3> H = reshape(p,3,3);

                    matrix<double,3,3> grad;
                    grad = 0;
                    for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
                    {
                        dlib::vector<double,3> from, to;
                        from = from_points[i];
                        from.z() = 1;
                        to = to_points[i];
                        to.z() = 1;

                        matrix<double,3,1> w = H*from;
                        const double scale = (w(2) != 0) ? (1.0/w(2)) : (1);
                        w *= scale;
                        matrix<double,3,1> residual = (w-to)*2*scale;

                        grad(0,0) += from.x()*residual(0);
                        grad(0,1) += from.y()*residual(0);
                        grad(0,2) +=          residual(0);

                        grad(1,0) += from.x()*residual(1);
                        grad(1,1) += from.y()*residual(1);
                        grad(1,2) +=          residual(1);

                        grad(2,0) += -(from.x()*w(0)*residual(0) + from.x()*w(1)*residual(1));
                        grad(2,1) += -(from.y()*w(0)*residual(0) + from.y()*w(1)*residual(1));
                        grad(2,2) += -(         w(0)*residual(0) +          w(1)*residual(1));

                    }
                    return reshape_to_column_vector(grad);
                }
            };
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_projective find_projective_transform (
            const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& from_points,
            const std::vector<dlib::vector<double,2> >& to_points
        )
        {
            using namespace impl_proj;
            // make sure requires clause is not broken
            DLIB_ASSERT(from_points.size() == to_points.size() &&
                        from_points.size() >= 4,
                "\t point_transform_projective find_projective_transform(from_points, to_points)"
                << "\n\t Invalid inputs were given to this function."
                << "\n\t from_points.size(): " << from_points.size()
                << "\n\t to_points.size():   " << to_points.size()
                );

            // Find a candidate projective transformation.  Also, find the best affine
            // transform and then compare it with the projective transform estimated using the
            // direct SVD method.  Use whichever one works better as the starting point for a
            // BFGS based optimizer.  If the best solution has large mean squared error and is
            // also close to affine then find_projective_transform_basic() might give a very
            // bad initial guess.  So also checking for a good affine transformation can
            // produce a much better final result in many cases.
            point_transform_projective tran1 = find_projective_transform_basic(from_points, to_points);
            point_transform_affine tran2 = find_affine_transform(from_points, to_points);

            // check which is best
            double error1 = 0;
            double error2 = 0;
            for (unsigned long i = 0; i < from_points.size(); ++i)
            {
                error1 += length_squared(tran1(from_points[i])-to_points[i]);
                error2 += length_squared(tran2(from_points[i])-to_points[i]);
            }
            matrix<double,9,1> params;
            // Pick the minimum error solution among the two so far.
            if (error1 < error2)
                params = reshape_to_column_vector(tran1.get_m());
            else
                params = reshape_to_column_vector(point_transform_projective(tran2).get_m());

            // Now refine the transformation matrix so that we can be sure we have
            // at least a local minimizer.
            obj o(from_points, to_points);
            obj_der der(from_points, to_points);
            find_min(bfgs_search_strategy(),
                    objective_delta_stop_strategy(1e-6,100),
                    o,
                    der,
                    params,
                    0);

            return point_transform_projective(reshape(params,3,3));
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        template <typename T>
        const dlib::vector<T,2> rotate_point (
            const dlib::vector<T,2>& center,
            const dlib::vector<T,2>& p,
            double angle
        )
        {
            point_rotator rot(angle);
            return rot(p-center)+center;
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline matrix<double,2,2> rotation_matrix (
             double angle
        )
        {
            const double ca = std::cos(angle);
            const double sa = std::sin(angle);

            matrix<double,2,2> m;
            m = ca, -sa,
                sa, ca;
            return m;
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class point_transform_affine3d
        {
        public:

            point_transform_affine3d (
            )
            {
                m = identity_matrix<double>(3);
                b.x() = 0;
                b.y() = 0;
            }

            point_transform_affine3d (
                const matrix<double,3,3>& m_,
                const dlib::vector<double,3>& b_
            ) :m(m_), b(b_)
            {
            }

            const dlib::vector<double,3> operator() (
                const dlib::vector<double,3>& p
            ) const
            {
                return m*p + b;
            }

            const matrix<double,3,3>& get_m(
            ) const { return m; }

            const dlib::vector<double,3>& get_b(
            ) const { return b; }

            inline friend void serialize (const point_transform_affine3d& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.m, out);
                serialize(item.b, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (point_transform_affine3d& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.m, in);
                deserialize(item.b, in);
            }

        private:
            matrix<double,3,3> m;
            dlib::vector<double,3> b;
        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d operator* (
            const point_transform_affine3d& lhs,
            const point_transform_affine& rhs
        )
        {
            matrix<double,3,3> m;
            m = 0;
            set_subm(m, get_rect(rhs.get_m())) = rhs.get_m();
            vector<double,3> b = rhs.get_b();

            return point_transform_affine3d(lhs.get_m()*m, lhs.get_m()*b+lhs.get_b());
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d operator* (
            const point_transform_affine3d& lhs,
            const point_transform_affine3d& rhs
        )
        {
            return point_transform_affine3d(lhs.get_m()*rhs.get_m(), lhs.get_m()*rhs.get_b()+lhs.get_b());
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d inv (
            const point_transform_affine3d& trans
        )
        {
            matrix<double,3,3> im = inv(trans.get_m());
            return point_transform_affine3d(im, -im*trans.get_b());
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d rotate_around_x (
            double angle
        )
        {
            const double ca = std::cos(angle);
            const double sa = std::sin(angle);

            matrix<double,3,3> m;
            m = 1,  0,  0,
                0, ca, -sa,
                0, sa, ca;

            vector<double,3> b;

            return point_transform_affine3d(m,b);
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d rotate_around_y (
            double angle
        )
        {
            const double ca = std::cos(angle);
            const double sa = std::sin(angle);

            matrix<double,3,3> m;
            m = ca,  0, sa,
                 0,  1, 0,
                -sa, 0, ca;

            vector<double,3> b;

            return point_transform_affine3d(m,b);
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d rotate_around_z (
            double angle
        )
        {
            const double ca = std::cos(angle);
            const double sa = std::sin(angle);

            matrix<double,3,3> m;
            m = ca, -sa, 0,
                sa, ca,  0,
                0,   0,  1;

            vector<double,3> b;

            return point_transform_affine3d(m,b);
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        inline point_transform_affine3d translate_point (
            const vector<double,3>& delta
        )
        {
            return point_transform_affine3d(identity_matrix<double>(3),delta);
        }

        inline point_transform_affine3d translate_point (
            double x,
            double y,
            double z
        )
        {
            return translate_point(vector<double>(x,y,z));
        }

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

        class camera_transform
        {

        public:

            camera_transform  (
            )
            {
                *this = camera_transform(vector<double>(1,1,1),
                                         vector<double>(0,0,0),
                                         vector<double>(0,0,1),
                                         90,
                                         1);
            }

            camera_transform (
                const vector<double>& camera_pos_,
                const vector<double>& camera_looking_at_,
                const vector<double>& camera_up_direction_,
                const double camera_field_of_view_,
                const unsigned long num_pixels_
            )
            {
                // make sure requires clause is not broken
                DLIB_CASSERT(0 < camera_field_of_view_ && camera_field_of_view_ < 180,
                    "\t camera_transform::camera_transform()"
                    << "\n\t Invalid inputs were given to this function."
                    << "\n\t camera_field_of_view_: " << camera_field_of_view_
                    );

                camera_pos = camera_pos_;
                camera_looking_at = camera_looking_at_;
                camera_up_direction = camera_up_direction_;
                camera_field_of_view = camera_field_of_view_;
                num_pixels = num_pixels_;

                dlib::vector<double> X,Y,Z;
                Z = (camera_looking_at - camera_pos).normalize();
                Y = camera_up_direction - dot(camera_up_direction,Z)*Z;
                Y = Y.normalize();
                X = Z.cross(Y);

                set_rowm(proj,0) = trans(X);
                // Minus because images have y axis going down but we want the 3d projection to appear using a normal coordinate system with y going up.
                set_rowm(proj,1) = -trans(Y);
                set_rowm(proj,2) = trans(Z);

                width = num_pixels/2.0;
                dist_scale = width/std::tan(pi/180*camera_field_of_view/2);
            }

            vector<double> get_camera_pos()         const { return camera_pos; }
            vector<double> get_camera_looking_at()  const { return camera_looking_at; }
            vector<double> get_camera_up_direction()const { return camera_up_direction; }
            double get_camera_field_of_view()       const { return camera_field_of_view; }
            unsigned long get_num_pixels()                   const { return num_pixels; }

            inline dpoint operator() (
                const vector<double>& p,
                double& scale,
                double& distance
            ) const
            {
                vector<double> temp = p-camera_pos;
                temp = proj*temp;
                distance = temp.z();
                scale = dist_scale/(temp.z()>0 ? temp.z() : 1e-9);
                temp.x() = temp.x()*scale + width;
                temp.y() = temp.y()*scale + width;
                return temp;
            }

            dpoint operator() (
                const vector<double>& p
            ) const
            {
                double scale, distance;
                return (*this)(p,scale,distance);
            }

            inline friend void serialize (const camera_transform& item, std::ostream& out)
            {
                serialize(item.camera_pos, out);
                serialize(item.camera_looking_at, out);
                serialize(item.camera_up_direction, out);
                serialize(item.camera_field_of_view, out);
                serialize(item.num_pixels, out);
                serialize(item.proj, out);
                serialize(item.dist_scale, out);
                serialize(item.width, out);
            }

            inline friend void deserialize (camera_transform& item, std::istream& in)
            {
                deserialize(item.camera_pos, in);
                deserialize(item.camera_looking_at, in);
                deserialize(item.camera_up_direction, in);
                deserialize(item.camera_field_of_view, in);
                deserialize(item.num_pixels, in);
                deserialize(item.proj, in);
                deserialize(item.dist_scale, in);
                deserialize(item.width, in);
            }

        private:

            vector<double> camera_pos;
            vector<double> camera_looking_at;
            vector<double> camera_up_direction;
            double camera_field_of_view;
            unsigned long num_pixels;
            matrix<double,3,3> proj;
            double dist_scale;
            double width;

        };

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

    }

    #endif // DLIB_POINT_TrANSFORMS_H_